Degradation of Major Classes Of Recalcitrant Chemicals Hindering The Reuse of Wastewater (A Review)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.65888/icraft.3.1.3Keywords:
degradation, recalcitrant chemicals, wastewater, ecotoxicity, environmentally friendlyAbstract
In this recent age of advanced technology and biotechnology, the existing water bodies that serve
as a reservoir for lives are experiencing a surge in the occurrence of chemical contaminant. These classes of
contaminants were found to include both organic and inorganic, synthetic and natural pollutants of serious
environmental concern. Studies revealed that these contaminants were predominantly recalcitrant chemicals
that have been grouped as either toxic, hazardous and carcinogenic. There occurrence is not limited to their
numbers, types or variety but also a concentration that is alarming, leading to what is known as emerging
chemical contaminants (ECC). Sudden increase in the occurrence of chemical contaminants in our water,
wetlands, ponds, wastewaters and sludge were due to increasing population, high demand and consumption,
while their persistent in the environment is strongly linked to their recalcitrant nature and physiochemical
properties. Partial treatment of wastewater results in the accumulation of recalcitrant chemicals while
incomplete degradation of recalcitrant chemicals give birth to emerging contaminant (EC). Incorporation of
tertiary treatment systems to our conventional wastewater treatment system in combination with advance
treatment processes becomes paramount. Advance oxidation treatment (AOP) processes, membrane systems
coupled with bioreactors, biodegradations using bacteria and fungi could be used in combination to remove
these recalcitrant chemicals from wastewater. Test to proof the safety and safe reuse of these treated
wastewaters should also be conducted using model organism to achieve an ecofriendly treated wastewater.
References
1. Ajay S., Rahul G., Anjali C. (2025). A review on sustainable management of hazardous, nonhazardous, and chemo-waste in the pharmaceutical sector and its correlation with UNSDGs 3, 6, 9, and 11–15. Environ Monit Assess (2025) 197:1002 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-025-14428-1
2. Arica, M.Y., Salih, B., Celikbicak, O., Bayramoglu, G., (2017). Immobilization of laccase on the fibrous polymer-grafted film and study of textile dye degradation by MALDI–ToFMS. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 128, 107–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2017.09. 023.
3. Asadgol, Z., Forootanfar, H., Rezaei, S., Mahvi, A.H., Faramarzi, M.A., 2014. Removal of phenol and bisphenol-A catalyzed bylaccase in aqueous solution. J. Environ. Health Sci. Eng. 12, 93. https://doi.org/10.1186/2052-336X-12-93.
4. Asmita Gupta and Indu Shekhar Thakur; (2016). Treatment of Organic Recalcitrant Contaminants in Wastewater Submitted: 31 March 2016 Reviewed: 14 October 2016 Published: 29 March 2017 DOI: 10.5772/66346)
5. Barceló D., (1993). J Chromatogr 643:117–143
6. Bayramoglu, G., Salih, B., Akbulut, A., Arica, M.Y., (2019). Biodegradation of Cibacron Blue 3GA by insolubilized laccase and identification of enzymatic byproduct using MALDI-ToF-MS: toxicity assessment studies by Daphnia magna and Chlorella vulgaris. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 170, 453–460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.12.014.
7. Bilal, M., Rasheed, T., Nabeel, F., Iqbal-Hafiz, M.N., Zhao, Y., (2019). Hazardous contaminants in the environment and their laccase-assisted degradation – a review. J.Environ. Manage. 234, 253–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.01.001.
8. Dauda, M. Y., & Erkurt, E. (2019). Investigation of reactive Blue 19 biodegradation and byproducts toxicity assessment using crude laccase extract from Trametes versicolor. Journal of Hazardous Materials 393 (2020)
121555 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121555
9. Dogan, S., & Kıdak, R. (2013). Degradation of Isoproturon by Advanced Oxidation Processes and Analysis of Toxicity of Byproducts. Istanbul International Solid Waste, Water And Wastewater Congress (2013) Pg 237. https://www.academia.edu/download/71672353/Istanbul3WCongAbstracts2013EngInteraktif.pdf#page=237
10. Dogan, S., & Kıdak, R. (2016). A plug flow reactor model for UV-based oxidation of amoxicillin, Desalin. Water Treat. 57 (2016) 13586–13599.
11. Dogan, S., & Kıdak, R. (2018). Medium-high frequency ultrasound and ozone based advanced oxidation for amoxicillin removal in water, Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 40 (2018) 131–139.
12. Environmental Protection Agency, (2012). Estimation Programs Interface SuiteTM for Microsoft Windows,<http://www.epa.gov/oppt/exposure/pubs/episuite. htm>, 2012 (accessed 12.12.2012).
13. Erkurt, E.A., Unyayar, A., Kumbur, H., (2007). Decolorization of synthetic dyes by white rot Fungi. Involving Laccase Enzyme in the Process, Process Biochem. 42, 1429–1435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2007.07.011.
14. Erkurt, H.A., (2015). Biodegradation and detoxification of BPA: involving laccase and a mediator clean soil. Air, Water. 43, 932–939. https://doi.org/10.1002/clen. 201400628
15. Fatone F, Di Fabio S, Bolzonella D, Cecchi F. (2011). Fate of aromatic hydrocarbons in Italian municipal wastewater systems: an overview of wastewater treatment using conventional activated‐sludge processes (CASP) and membrane bioreactors (MBRs). Water Res. 2011; 45(1):93–104.
16. Fent. K, Weston AA, Caminada D. (2006). Ecotoxicology of human pharmaceuticals. Aquat. Toxicol. 2006; 7:122–159.
17. Gao, D., Du, L., Yang, J., Wu, W.M., Liang, H., (2010). A critical review of the application of white rot fungus to environmental pollution control. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 30, 70–77. https://doi.org/10.3109/07388550903427272.
18. Garric J, Ferrari B. (2005). Pharmaceuticals in aquatic ecosystems. Levels of exposure and biological effects: A review. Revue des Sciences de l'Eau/Journal of Water Science. 2005; 18(3): 307–330.
19. Gassara, F., Brar, S.K., Verma, M., Tyagi, R.D., 2013. Bisphenol a degradation in water by ligninolytic enzymes. Chemosphere. 92, 1356–1360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.02.071
20. Guedes‐Alonso R, Afonso‐Olivares C, Montesdeoca‐Esponda S, Sosa‐Ferrera Z and Santana‐Rodríguez JJ. (2013). An Assessment of the Concentrations of Pharmaceutical Compounds in Wastewater Treatment Plants
on the Island of Gran Canaria (Spain). Springer Plus. 2013; 2:24. http://www.springerplus.com/content/2/1/24
21. Hatakka, (1994). Lignin‐modifying enzymes from selected white‐rot fungi: production and role in lignin degradation. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 13, 125–135. https://doi.org/10. 1111/j.1574-6976.1994.tb00039.x.
22. José Juan Santana Rodríguez & Zoraida Sosa Ferrera & Daura Vega Moreno & M. Esther Torres Padrón & Cristina Mahugo Santana (2008). Recent trends in the use of organized molecular systems combined with chromatographic techniques in environmental analysis. Anal Bioanal Chem (2008) 391:725–733 DOI
10.1007/s00216-008-1838-x
23. Kummerer K. (2001). Drugs in the environment: emission of drugs, diagnostic aids and disinfectants into wastewater by hospitals in relation to other sources – a review. Chemosphere. 2001; 45:957–969.
24. Lamia Ayed, Kamel Chaieb, Abdelkarim Cheref, Amina Bakhrouf. (2010). Biodegradation and decolorization of triphenylmethane dyes by Staphylococcus epidermidis. Desalination 260 (2010) 137–146.
doi:10.1016/j.desal.2010.04.052.
25. Lao, R. C., Thomas, R. S., Monkman, J. L., (1975). J Chromatogr 112:681– 700
26. Li, X.Z., Cheng, Q., Wu, Y.C., Feng, Y.Z., Liu, W.W., Liu, X.G., (2014). Influencing factors and product toxicity of Anthracene Oxidation by fungal laccase. Pedosphere 24, 359–366. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311843.2017.1339841
27. Llers, Ö. S, Singer HP, Fässler P, Müller SR. (2001). Simultaneous quantification of neutral and acidic pharmaceuticals and pesticides at the low‐ng/l level in surface and waste water. J. Chromatogr. A. 2001;
911:225–234.
28. Miège C, Choubert JM, Ribeiro L, Eusèbe M, Coquery M. (2009). Fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in wastewater treatment plants – Conception of a database and first results. Environ. Pollut. 2009;
157:1721–1726.
29. Mitra S., (2003). Sample preparation techniques in analytical chemistry. Wiley–Interscience, New Jersey
30. Nguyen, L.N., van de Merwe, J.P., Hai, F.I., Leusch, F.D.L., Kang, J., Price, W.E., Roddick, F., Magram, S.F., Nghiem, L.D., (2016). Laccase–syringaldehyde-mediated degradation of trace organic contaminants in an
enzymatic membrane reactor: removal efficiency and effluent toxicity. Bioresour. Technol. 200, 477–484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. biortech.2015.10.054.
31. Parra Guardadoa, A.L., Bellevillea, M.-P., Alanisb, M.J.R., Saldivarb, R.P., Sanchez-Marcano, J., (2019). Effect of redox mediators in pharmaceuticals degradation by laccase: a comparative study. Process. Biochem. 78, 123–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2018.12.032.
32. Pawliszyn J (1997). “Solid phase microextraction: Theory and practice”. Wiley-VCH, 247 pp
33. Pulate, V.D., Bhagwat, S., Prabhune, A., 2013. Microbial oxidation of medium chain fatty alcohol in the synthesis of sophorolipids by Candida bombicola and its physicochemical characterization. J Surfact Deterg 16, 173–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11743-012-1378-4
34. Qutob, M., Doğan, S., & Rafatullah, M. (2022). Heterogeneous Activation of Persulfate by Activated Carbon for Efficient Acetaminophen Degradation: Mechanism, Kinetics, Mineralization, and Density Functional
Theory. Chemistry Select 2022, 7, e202201249 (11) doi.org/10.1002/slct.202201249
35. Salazar-Lopez, M., Rostro-Alanis, Mde J., Castillo-Zacarias, C., Parra-Guardado, A.L., Hernandez-Luna, C., Iqbal, H.M.N., Parra-Saldivar, R., (2017). Induced degradation of anthraquinone-based dye by laccase produced from pycnoporus sanguineus (CS43). Water Air Soil Pollut. 228, 469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s112700173644-6.
36. Shraddha, R., Shekher, S., Sehgal, M., Kamthania, A., (2011). Kumar Laccase: microbial sources, production, and potential biotechnological applications. Enzyme Res. 2011, 11. https://doi.org/10.4061/2011/217861
37. Su, J., Noro, J., Fu, J., Wang, Q., Silva, C., Cavaco-Paulo, A., (2019). Coloured and low conductive fabrics by in situ laccase-catalysed polymerization. Process. Biochem. 77, 77–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2018.11.007
38. Ternes T. A. (1998) Occurrence of drugs in German sewage treatment plants and rivers. Water Res. 1998;32(11):3245–3260.
39. Ternes, T. A., Joss, A., (2006). Human Pharmaceuticals, Hormones and Fragnences: The Challenge of Micropollutants in Urban Water Management, IWA Publishing, London, 2006.
40. Unyayar, A., Mazmanci, M.A., Atacag, H., Erkurt, E.A., Coral, G., (2005a). A Drimaren blue X3LR dye decolorizing enzyme from Funalia trogii: one step isolation and identification. Enzyme Microb. Technol. 36,
10–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enzmictec. 2004.02.008.
41. Unyayar, A., Mazmanci, M.A., Erkurt, E.A., Atacag, H., Gizir, A.M., (2005b). Decolorization kinetics of the azo dye drimaren blue X3LR by laccase. React. Kinet. Catal. Lett. 86, 99–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11144-005-0300-8.
42. World Health Organization, (2012). Pharmaceuticals in drinking-water. http: ,2012 (accessed 20.03.13).
43. Viswanath, B., Rajesh, B., Janardhan, A., Kumar, A.P., Narasimha, G., (2014). Fungal laccases and their applications in bioremediation, Review Article. Enzyme es.2014 https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/163242. ID
163242.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This journal is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). This license permits anyone to copy, redistribute, remix, transmit and adapt the work provided the original work and source is appropriately cited.
